The strength and regularity of the peripheral arterial pressure waves and the pulse rate are assessed by palpation of the femoral or other peripheral arteries. Subjective evaluation of pulse strength is based on the difference between the systolic and diastolic arterial pressures (pulse pressure).
When the difference is wide, the pulse feels strong on palpation; abnormally [...]
System venous and right heart filling pressures are reflected at the jugular veins. These veins should not be distended when the animal is standing with its head in a normal position (jaw parallel to the floor). Persistent jugular vein distention occurs in association with right-sided congestive heart failure (because of high right heart filling pressure), [...]
Physical evaluation of the animal with suspected heart disease includes observation (e.g., attitude, posture, body condition, level of anxiety, respiratory pattern) and a general physical examination.
The cardiovascular examination itself consists of evaluating the peripheral circulation (mucous membranes), systemic veins (especially the jugular veins), systemic arterial pulses (usually the femoral arteries), and the precordium (left and [...]
Cardiac output often becomes inadequate in animals with heart disease or heart failure, especially in association with activity. Reduced exercise tolerance and tiring can result from impaired skeletal muscle perfusion during exercise and the vascular and metabolic changes that result over time. Episodes of exertional weakness or collapse can relate to these changes or to [...]
Thoracic auscultation is used to identify normal heart sounds, determine the presence or absence of abnormal sounds, assess heart rhythm and rate, and evaluate pulmonary sounds. Heart sounds are created by turbulent blood flow and associated vibrations in adjacent tissue during the cardiac cycle. Although many of these sounds are too low in frequency and/or [...]